Notes

⁽¹⁾  Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas, Censo de Poblacion y Vivienda. Chile 1992.

⁽²⁾  Alexia Peyser. "Notas sobre la Dinamica Demografica en Reducciones Indigenas de la IX Region." En Tierra, Territorio y Desarrollo Indigena. Temuco, Instituto de Estudios Indigenas de la Universidad de la Frontera, 1995), 195-204.

⁽³⁾  The Mapuche, the largest indigenous people in this territory, by itself attained this number. Jose Bengoa, Historia del Pueblo Mapuche (Santiago: Ediciones Sur, 1985), 15

⁽⁴⁾  Groups of natives were granted by the Spanish crown to the "encomemderos" for whom they had to work as a way to pay the tribute established by the monarch.

⁽⁵⁾  These parleys continued to be used up till the end of the colonial period. An example of this were those celebrated in Nascimiento, Negrete and Las Canoas (Osorno) during the XVIII century. They same are considered by many Mapuche organizations today as the proof and fundament of their territorial and political rights south of Bio Bio.

⁽⁶⁾  It is estimated that only during the first fifty years of contact, almost two thirds of the existing population died for this reasons. Jose Bengoa, 16.

⁽⁷⁾  Sergio Guevara and Rafeal Echeverria, Historia de la Civilizacion y Legislacion Indigena de Chile. (Santiago: Facultad de Ciencias Juridicas y Sociales, Universidad de Chile, 1948), 29-39.

⁽⁸⁾  It is important to mention that a similar process took place in Argentina at the same time. The war against the Pampas and Mapuche indians until then occupying the Argentinian Patagonia, konwn as the "Dessert War", enabled that State to take control of this large part of that country, as well as of the indigenous population living there, by 1880.

⁽⁹⁾  Hector Gonzalez, "Propiedad Comunitaria o Individual. Las Leyes Indigenas y el Pueblo Mapuche." Nutram, Year II, No3,1986,7.

⁽¹⁰⁾  While the Mapuche were granted by the State an average of 6.18 hectares of land per person through the "reducciones", the State sold to individuals plots of 500 hectares, and gave to foreign settlers farms of 40 hectares per family, plus 20 pr each son over twelve years old.

⁽¹¹⁾  This was the decree law No 2568 of 1979. Its main objective was to promote the division of the communal lands granted by the State last century, and their conversion into privately owned lands. According to its original text, the plots resulting from the division of the communal lands would no longer be considered indigenous lands, nor their owners and recipients considered as such. This was considered by Mapuche organizations to be a clear attempt to promote the legal destruction of their people.

⁽¹²⁾  Out of the four peoples living in that area, two have completely disappeared from the Chilean territory, meanwhile the other two have a population close to one hundred each. In Jose Aylwin, Comunidades Indigenas de los Canales Australes.(Santiago: CONADI, 1995).

⁽¹³⁾  Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas, Censo de Poblacion y Vivienda. Chile 1992 .

⁽¹⁴⁾  Mapuche population living in rural communities rises to 234.541 if those under 14 are to be considered. Of the urban Mapuche, 409.079, representing 44 per cent of their total population, live in the Metropolitan Region of Santiago. Based on the 1992 Census (Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas), in Jose Bengoa, Los Mapuche. Comunidades y Localidades en Chile. (Santiago: Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas; Ediciones SUR, 1979), 12-16.

⁽¹⁵⁾ In Hector Gonzalez, 12, and Jose Bengoa, Los Mapuche. Comunidades y Localidades en Chile, 18.

⁽¹⁶⁾  Jose Bengoa, Los Mapuche. Comunidades y Localidades en Chile, 18-25.

⁽¹⁷⁾  Persons 14 or older who identified as such in the 1992 population census. In Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas, Censo de Poblacion y Vivienda. Chile, 1992.

⁽¹⁸⁾  Taller de Estudios Aymara. Problemas y Perspectivas para el Desarrollo Aymara Regional. (Working Document No 3, Arica:TEA, 1987).

⁽¹⁹⁾  This assimilating policies were intensified during the military regime in the seventies and eighties. An example of this were the "frontier schools" promoted in the area with the aim of "Chileanizing" the Aymara population, and the promotion of neighbourhood asssociations in Aymara communities in substitution of their traditional organizations.

⁽²⁰⁾  Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, 1992. This number has been questioned by experts and the Rapa Nui leaders. The estimations for this population range from two to three thousands, the majority of which would live in Easter Island.

⁽²¹⁾  Close to 50 % of the fiscal lands of Eastern island have been ceded by the State to the Ministry of Agriculture for the creation of a National Park. A similar percentage has been ceded to CORFO, a State enterprise which administrates a farm and the islands public services, including water, electricity and the port

⁽²²⁾  In the last years, this Council divided into two different organizations due to political reasons, thus weakening their ability to obtain solution to their histotical demands.

⁽²³⁾  This agreement was signed by most of the Mapuche, Aymara and Rapa Nui organizations existing at that time and by Patricio Aylwin, who became elected president of Chile in the same year, in representation of the Concertacion.

⁽²⁴⁾  Some of indigenous demands, such as those dealing with autonomy and inclusion of the concept of indigenous territories, were left out by the government before the law proposal was sent to Congress. Nevertheless, most of the restrictions imposed on this initiative, such as those dealing with the recognition of their status as peoples, with the preferential right of indigenous people to obtain concession over natural resources existing within their lands, the relocation of indigenous peoples from their territories, or the recognition of customary rights, were done at the National Congress.

⁽²⁵⁾  The term "peoples" demanded by their organizations was, nevertheless, rejected by Congress due to its apparent contradiction to the constitution which only recognizes the existence of one people; the "Chilean".

⁽²⁶⁾  This "areas" were created due to indigenous demand for the recognition of their ancestral "territories" and for the acknowledgement of their right to participate in the decisions affecting their life. The provision contained in the law does not reflect indigenous interests with these regard.

⁽²⁷⁾  The transitory provisions of the same law established that indigenous representatives would be appointed by the President for a first and only period of time. In 1995, an election was called among indigenous communities and associations all over the country to fill these positions. The election of indigenous representatives, nevertheless, is of an indirect nature, due to the fact that the President of the Republic has to chose the names among those who receive the majority of votes.

⁽²⁸⁾  One of the criticism that has been made to CONADI by its adversaries during the last years, is related to its ambiguities as a public institution, considered by many as an indigenous entity rather than as a governmental agency.

⁽²⁹⁾  Of these 75.000 hectares, almost 50.000 were transferee to CONADI by the State for their entitlement to indigenous individuals or communities, and the remaining 25.000 have been purchased by CONADI through different public programs, benefiting those who lack sufficient land or solving historical land conflicts. In Jose Aylwin. Ley Indigena: Avances y Obstaculos para su Materializacion en el Territorio Mapuche (1994-1997), (Temuco: Instituto de Estudios Indigenas, Universidad de la Frontera, 1998 (unpublished document)). The total budget destined by CONADI to this land and water fund was of $ 13.220.153.119 (Chilean pesos), which is equivalent to approximately $ 30.000.000 (US dollars). The families benefited by this fund through the period reach to 15.358 according to CONADI. In CONADI ( Departamento de Tierras y Aguas Indigenas), Fondo de Tierras y Aguas Indigenas. Resultados de Programas Ejecutados Periodo 1994-1997, (Temuco, Conadi (unpublished document, 1997)).

⁽³⁰⁾ The resources devoted by CONADI to this fund from 1994 to 1997 are $ 4.961.323.000 (Chilean pesos), equivalent to aproximately $ 10.000.000 (US dollars).

⁽³¹⁾  CONADI. Informe de Gestion 1994-1996. (Temuco: Conadi, 1997), 32. Most of these funds have been contested to indigenous individuals and organizations, which have to present specific proposals in order to compete for them.

⁽³²⁾  During the last years, Chilean government has signed Free Trade Agreements with Mexico and Canada, has become a member of MERCOSUR, a free market association including Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, and has incorporated to APEC , the Asia Pacific Economic Conference. These agreements demonstrate the orientation of Chile's economic activity during the same period.

⁽³³⁾  Victor Toledo," Todas las Aguas. El Subsuelo, las Riberas, las Tierras". In LIWEN (Anuario del Centro de Documentacion Mapuche LIWEN), No 4, June 1997, 42.

⁽³⁴⁾  This opposition was made public both through the Centro Mapuche Pehuenche del Alto Bio Bio, an organization composed of the Chiefs of the seven Pehuenche communities existing in the area, as well as by the large majority of the members of the two communities that would be directly affected by this development, through letters adressed to CONAMA , the government environmental agency, in 1996.

⁽³⁵⁾  From the total opposition existing the Pehuenche communities in 1996, only 13 families continue to oppose this dam.

⁽³⁶⁾  Some of these lands had belong to Mapuche clans or families before their territory was occupied by the army last century. Others had been part of their "reducciones" until the beginning of this century, or even until the eighties, and then were sold to non indigenous in accordance to laws that promoted these contracts. Others had been occupied ("tomadas") and used, including the plantation of trees, by Mapuche families during the socialist government in the early seventies, who later, during the military regime, had been expelled out of them by their legal owners.

⁽³⁷⁾  Only one of this forest companies, MIMINCO, a national private enterprise, has more than 350.000 hectares of land devoted for this purpose, most of them in mapuche territory. La Epoca, Santiago, March 1, 1998.

⁽³⁸⁾  More than 6.000 hectares of land have been usurpated by these companies to the Mapuche according to their organization, the Lumako Mapuche County Association. In Punto Final, Santiago, December 19, 1997.

⁽³⁹⁾  They were detained by police and sent to prison. The government is suing them for the violation of the State security law (ley de seguridad interior del Estado).

⁽⁴⁰⁾  The Arauco Mapuche organizations estimate the lands usurpated by these companies in their province in approximately 55.000 hectares. Letter addressed to the government by these organizations in January 1998 (extracted from Internet http://www.xs4all.nl/~rehue/).

⁽⁴¹⁾  Information given by the regional government in 1997. According to the same source, the initial highway planned by the government affected a total of 30 communities and hundreds of families. The number of people affected was diminished after the original plan was changed due to pressure coming from the Mapuche communities of the area.

⁽⁴²⁾  Resolutions of the Congress in Defense of the Mapuche Territory, April 1997 (Unpublished document)

⁽⁴³⁾  Statements made public by CONADI regarding the Ralco case in 1996.

⁽⁴⁴⁾  Unlike what was expected, the new director of CONADI, an indigenous member of the government coalition of parties, has also expressed his concern regarding the developments which are taking place in the Mapuche territory. He has warned those involved in these projects that consultation will be made to peoples affected by them, before granting any authorization for their implementation.

⁽⁴⁵⁾  Congreso Nacional Mapuche, Temuco, Chile, 15, 16 and 17 of November, 1997 (Unpublished document extracted from Internet http:/www.xs4all.nl/~rehue/).